Topics to be learn : Improvement in Crop Yields Animal Husbandry

Food :

• Living organisms require energy for various life processes, which they obtain from food.
• Food provides nutrients like proteins, fats, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, essential for body development, growth, and good health.
• Agriculture and animal husbandry are major sources of food for humans.

Need for Improvement in Food Resources in India :

India, with a growing population of over one billion, requires increased food production to meet its growing needs. However, due to India's intensive cultivation, there is no room for expanding land under cultivation. Therefore, increasing production efficiency for crops and livestock is necessary.

Past efforts, such as the green and white revolutions, have increased the use of natural resources, leading to potential depletion.

• Green revolution has contributed in increasing the food grain production.
• White revolution has led to better availability of milk.

Therefore, it is crucial to increase food production without compromising the environment, incorporating sustainable practices in agriculture and animal husbandry. This will help maintain the health and sustainability of India's population.

Crops : These are the plants that are cultivated by human beings on a large scale for food, fodder and other materials.

Climatic Conditions for Crops : Different crops require different climatic conditions like, temperature and photoperiods (i.e. related to the duration of sunlight) for their growth and completion of life cycle.

Since, plants manufacture their food in sunlight by the process of photosynthesis, growth of plants and flowering depend on the duration of sunlight.

Classification of Crops :

Based on the seasons crops can be classified as

• Kharif crops : These crops are grown in hot and rainy season (Kharif season) from the month of June to October, e.g. paddy, soybean, pigeon pea, maize, cotton, green gram, groundnut, black gram, etc.
• Rabi crops : These crops are grown in dry and winter season (Rabi season) from the month of November to April, e.g. wheat, gram, peas, mustard, linseed, barley, etc.

Improvement in Crop Yields :

The practices involved in increasing crop yield are categorised into three major groups as

• Crop variety improvement which includes the choice of seeds for planting.
• Crop production management which includes nurturing of the crop plants.
• Crop protection management which includes the protection of the growing and harvested crops from loss.

Crop Variety Improvement :

• It is the technique of bringing together various useful characters from different varieties of crop plants into one crop variety.
• The main aim of this practice is to find a variety of crop, that produces high yield and can withstand different conditions like high soil salinity, diverse climatic conditions drought, flood and water availability.
• Varieties or strains of crops can be selected by breeding for various traits such as disease resistance, response to fertilisers, product quality and high yields. A new variety developed with all such features is highly acceptable.

Methods of Crop Variety Improvement :

There are two methods to incorporate desirable characteristics into crop varieties.

These are as follows

(i) Hybridisation : It refers to the crossing between the genetically dissimilar plants to produce a new type (hybrid) or High Yielding Variety (HYV). It is further of the following types

• Intervarietal : The cross done between two plants belonging to different varieties of crops. It is the most common method used in plant breeding.
• Interspecific : The cross done between two plants belonging to different species of the same genus.
• Intergeneric : The cross done between plants belonging to different genera.

(ii) Genetically modified crops : It involves the incorporation or new gene in crop plants to increase their yield, improve quality, sustainability, etc. and provide desired characteristics in the crop.

Crop Production Management :

Crop production management involves various farming practices and technologies, influenced by farmers' financial conditions. Higher inputs correlate with higher yields, and the purchasing capacity of farmers determines cropping systems and production practices. These practices can be grouped into three levels: no cost, low cost, and high cost.

Crop production management includes the management of nutrients, irrigation and cropping patterns, which are as discussed below

(1) Nutrient Management :

Nutrients are the inorganic elements, which are required by plants for their growth and development. Nutrients are supplied to plants by air, water and soil. There are in total 16 essential nutrients for plants.

Nutrients supplied by air, water and soil :

Source	Nutrients
Air	carbon, oxygen
Water	hydrogen, oxygen
Soil	(i) Macronutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur (ii) Micronutrients: iron, manganese, boron, zinc, copper, molybdenum, chlorine

Soil supplies following 13 nutrients that are divided into two major categories as

• Macronutrients : These are required by plants in large quantities, hence known as macronutrients. These include six nutrients viz., nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur.
• Micronutrients : These are required by plants in small quantities and include seven nutrients viz., iron, manganese, boron, zinc, copper, molybdenum and chlorine.

The deficiency of any of these nutrients affects physiological processes in plants including reproduction, growth and susceptibility to disease.

Nutrients can be supplied to the soil in the form of manure and fertilisers. It helps to increase the yield of crops.

Manure : It is a natural fertiliser. It contains large quantities of organic substances formed by the decomposition of animal excreta and plant wastes. It supplies small quantities of nutrients to the soil.

Based on the type of biological material used, manure can be classified as

(i) Compost and vermicompost :

• The process in which farm waste material like livestock excreta (cow dung, etc.), vegetable waste, animal refuse, domestic waste, sewage waste, straw, eradicated weeds, etc., are decomposed in pits is known as composting.
• The compost is rich in organic matter and nutrients.
• Compost is also prepared by using earthworms to hasten the process of decomposition of plants and animals refuse. This process is called vermicomposting.

(ii) Green manure :

• Some plants like sunn hemp or guar are grown and mulched by ploughing them into the soil before sowing of the crop seeds.
• These green plants turn into green manure which helps in increasing the content of nitrogen and phosphorus in the soil.

Advantages of manure :

• It enriches soil with nutrients and organic matter (called humus).
• It increases soil fertility and decreases the harmful effects of pesticides and insecticides on soil.
• The bulk of organic matter helps in improving the soil structure by increasing the water holding capacity in sandy soils. In clayey soil, large quantity of organic matter helps in drainage and in avoiding water logging.
• By the use of biological waste material (manure), we can protect the environment from excessive use of fertilisers.
• It also helps in the recycling of farm waste.

Fertilisers : These are commercially produced plant nutrients. Fertilisers supply nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) to the soil.

Advantages of fertilisers :

• These are easily available, easy to use and store.
• These help in the higher yields of high-cost farming.
• These are used to ensure good vegetative growth (leaves, branches and flowers) and give rise to healthy plants.

Disadvantages of fertilisers :

• Fertilisers can cause water pollution as they get washed away, since they are not absorbed fully by the plants due to excessive irrigation. Hence, they should be used and applied carefully in terms of proper dose, time and after observing the pre and post application carefully.
• The continuous use of fertilisers in any area can eventually destroy fertility of a soil because the organic matter in the soil does not get replenished. Also microorganisms in the soil are harmed by the use of fertilisers.
• They provide short-term benefits. Thus, for maintaining soil fertility, both short-term benefits of using fertilisers and long-term benefits of using manure must be considered while aiming for the optimum yields in crop production.

Organic Farming : It is an environmental friendly farming system that characterises

• Minimal or no use of fertilisers, herbicides, pesticides, etc.
• Maximum use of organic manures, recycled farm wastes (straw and livestock excreta).
• Use of biofertilisers and biopesticides like culture of blue-green algae and neem leaves, respectively.
• Following healthy cropping systems like mixed cropping, intercropping and crop rotation.

(2) Irrigation :

• Irrigation is the process of providing water to crop plants in fields through canals, reservoirs, wells, and tubewells.
• In India, most agricultural practices are rain-fed, with crop success largely dependent on timely monsoons and sufficient rainfall.
• Farmers rely on natural resources like ponds, wells, and canals to ensure water is supplied at the right stages and amounts.

Irrigation Systems :

In India, a wide variety of water resources and a highly varied climate is found. Under such conditions, several different kinds of irrigation systems are adopted depending on the type of water resources available for agricultural purposes. These are as follows

(i) Wells : These are constructed wherever groundwater is present for irrigation. These are of two main types

• Dug wells : In these wells water is collected from water bearing strata. This water is lifted by mechanical means like bullock operated device.
• Tube wells : In these wells, water can be lifted from deeper strata using pumps.

(ii) Canals : These are usually an elaborate and extensively used method of irrigation. In this system canals receive water from reservoirs like dam or from rivers. The main canal is divided into other branch canals that have further distributaries to irrigate fields.

(iii) River : Lift Systems This method is used in areas where canal flow is insufficient or irregular due to insufficient reservoir release. Here, water is directly

drawn from the rivers for supplementing irrigation in areas close to rivers.

(iv) Tanks : These are small storage reservoirs, which intercept and store the run-off of smaller catchment areas.

Modern Techniques of Irrigation : Fresh initiatives are also taken for increasing water availability for agriculture by augmenting groundwater levels. These mainly includes the following

• Rainwater harvesting In this, rainwater is collected into ground by digging tunnels, etc. This water percolates into the soil, thus maintaining the water table.
• Watershed development : Small check-dams are built to increase groundwater levels. The purpose of check-dams is to stop the rainwater from flowing away and also to reduce soil erosion.

Know This : Drought : Drought is a condition caused by scarcity or irregular rain distribution, posing a threat to rainfed farming areas where farmers rely solely on rain, leading to poor monsoons and crop failure. Light soils have less water retention capacity, making crops adversely affected by drought conditions. Scientists have developed crop varieties to tolerate drought conditions.

(3) Cropping Patterns :

It involves raising crops so as to obtain maximum benefit from the same piece of land. It reduces the risk of crop failure, diseases, etc. For this purpose, crops can be grown in different ways. Some of these are as follows

(i) Mixed Cropping : It is the practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land. For example, wheat + gram, wheat + mustard, groundnut + sunflower, etc.

Advantages of mixed cropping :

• Improves soil fertility.
• The risk of total crop failure due to uncertain monsoon is reduced.
• Gives some insurance against failure of one of the crops.

(ii) Intercropping : It is the practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field in a definite pattern. A few rows of one crop alternate with a few rows of other crop.

The crops are selected on the basis of their nutrient requirements. Two crops must have different nutrient requirements from each other. For example, soybean + maize, finger millet (bajra) + cowpea (lobia), etc.

Advantages of intercropping :

• It ensures maximum utilisation of supplied nutrients and therefore better returns.
• It prevents the spread of pests and diseases to all the plants of one crop in a field.
• Both crops give better returns in it.

(iii) Crop Rotation : Crop rotation is the systematic growth of different crops on a specific area in a pre-determined sequence, depending on the duration of the crops. After one crop is harvested, a second crop can be grown on the same field, and the crop chosen after one harvest depends on the availability of moisture and irrigation facilities.

Advantages of crop rotation :

• It improves the fertility of soil.
• It minimises pest infestation and diseases.
• It prevents the change in the chemical nature of the soil.
• It avoids depletion of a particular nutrient from the soil.
• If done properly, two or thre crops can be grown in a year with good harvest.

Crop Protection Management :

It is a management strategy that includes methods to minimise infestation caused by weeds, pests, insects and related diseases, in order to get maximum yield.

Various threats to crops include

(i) Weeds :

• These are the unwanted plants in the cultivated field.
• They usually compete with the crops for food, space and light.
• Weeds take up nutrients and reduce the growth of the crop.
• Therefore, they should be removed during early stages of crop growth in order to obtain good harvest.
• Some examples of weeds are : Xanthium (gokhroo), Parthenium (gajar ghas), Cyperinus rotundus (motha), Amaranthus, Chenopodium, wild oat, etc.

Methods used to control weeds :

• Mechanical methods : Such as uprooting.
• Preventive methods : Proper seed bed preparation, timely sowing of crops, intercropping and crop rotation.
• Chemical methods : Use of weedicides.

(ii) Insect Pests :

These are destructive organisms that negatively affect the health of crop and thus reduce its yield.

Insect pests attack the plants in following ways

• They cut the root, stem and leaf, e.g. locusts.
• They suck the cell sap from various parts of the plant, e.g. aphids.
• They bore into stems and fruits, e.g. shoot borer larvae.

Methods used to control the pests :

• By the use of resistant varieties.
• Summer ploughing (fields ploughed deep during summers to destroy weeds and pests).

(iii) Crop Diseases :

• Diseases in plants are caused by different pathogens such as bacteria, fungi and viruses. These pathogens are present in and transmitted through the soil, water and air.
• Crop diseases can be controlled by the use of pesticides like herbicides, insecticides and fungicides. They are sprayed on crop plants in limited amounts or used for treating seeds and soil.
• Excessive use of these chemicals can be poisonous to plants and animals. It also causes environmental pollution.

Storage of Grains : During storage of grains, high losses can occur in agricultural produce. Factors responsible for such losses can be categorised as

(i) Biotic factors : These include rodents, fungi, insects, mites and bacteria.

(ii) Abiotic factors : These include inappropriate moisture and temperature conditions in the place of storage.

Possible effects of these factors on grains include

• Degradation in quality.
• Poor germinative capacity.
• Discolouration of the produce.
• Loss in weight.

All these lead to poor marketability and heavy economic losses. These factors can be controlled by

(i) Proper treatment and systematic management of warehouses.

(ii) The proper storage of grains can be done by

• Strict cleaning of the produce before storage.
• Proper drying of the produce in sunlight and then in shade.
• Periodic fumigation on a regular basis to kill pests.

Animal Husbandry :

The scientific management of animal livestock is termed as Animal husbandry. It can be defined as the science of rearing, feeding, breeding, disease control and utilisation of animals.

The animal, based farming mainly includes cattle, goat, sheep, poultry and fish farming.

Need for Animal Husbandry :

• It is required to meet the increasing demands of animal based goods like milk, meat, eggs, leather, etc. due to an increase in the size of the population and its living standards.
• It sets guidelines for proper management and systematic approach to animal rearing.

Nutritional Values of Animal Products :

Cattle Farming :

It is the raising of cattle for two purposes, milk and draught labour for agricultural work (such as tilling, irrigation and carting).

Cattle in India belong to two different species

• Bos indicus (cows)
• Bos bubalis (buffaloes).

On the basis of work done by them, cattle can be divided into two categories

• Draught animals : These are used to do labour work in farms.
• Milch animals : These are milk producing females or dairy animals. Milk production largely depends on the duration of the lactation period. It is the period of milk production after the birth of a calf. We can increase the milk production by increasing the lactation period.

Cattle and their Breeds :

• Indigenous or Local breeds : They are selected because of their excellent resistances to disease, e.g. Red Sindhi and Sahiwal.
• Exotic or Foreign breeds : They are selected because of their long lactation period, e.g. Jersey and Brown Swiss.

These two breeds can be cross-bred to get animals with both the desirable qualities.

Farm Management for Cattle :

Efficient farm management is essential for human farming, better health of animals and production of clean milk.

Various measures for farm management are as follows

• To provide proper cleaning and shelter facilities for cattle.
• Regular brushing of animals to remove dirt and loose hair.
• The cattle should be sheltered under well-ventilated roofed sheds in order to protect them from rain, heat and cold.
• The floor of the cattle shed should be sloping, so that it stays dry and facilitate cleaning.

Food Requirements of Cattle :

Food is required for dairy cattle for following two purposes

• For maintenance : Food is required to support the animal to live a healthy life.
• For producing milk : This type of food is required during the lactation period.

Animal feed includes

• Roughage : This is largely fibrous and contain low nutrients, e.g. green fodder, silage, hay and legumes.
• Concentrates : These are low in fibre. They contain relatively high levels of proteins and other nutrients.

Apart from the above mentioned products, some feed additives containing micronutrients promote the health and milk output of dairy animals. It should also be noted that cattle should be given balanced rations with all the nutrients in proportionate amounts.

Diseases in Cattle :

Like other animals, cattle also suffer from a number of diseases. These diseases besides causing death, also reduce milk production.

Parasites of cattle :

• External parasites : They live on the skin and cause skin diseases, e.g. lice, mites, etc.
• Internal parasites : They include worms that affect stomach and intestine and flukes that damage the liver.

Cattle also get infectious diseases from various bacteria and viruses. As a preventive measure, vaccinations are given to farm animals against many viral and bacterial diseases.

Poultry Farming :

Poultry farming involves raising domestic fowl for egg production and chicken meat,

In this, improved poultry breeds are developed and farmed to produce layers for eggs and broilers for meat.

Measures taken to Improve Poultry Breeds

For the improvement of poultry breeds, cross-breeding is done successfully between Indian or indigenous (e.g. Aseel) and foreign or exotic (e.g. Leghorn) breeds.

These cross-breeding programmes focus to develop desirable traits like

• Quality and quantity (number) of chicks.
• Dwarf broiler parent for commercial chick production.
• Summer adaptation capacity/tolerance to high temperature,
• Low maintenance requirements.
• Reduction in the size of egg-laying bird with the ability to utilise more fibrous and cheaper diets. This diet is formulated using agricultural byproducts.

Egg and Broiler Production :

• Broiler chickens are fed vitamin-rich supplementary feed for improved growth and efficiency.
• They are produced for meat purposes and have different housing, nutritional, and environmental requirements.
• Broilers' diet is rich in protein and fat, and high levels of vitamins-A and K are maintained in the poultry feed.
• Care is taken to avoid mortality and maintain feathering and carcass quality.

Farm Management for Poultry Birds :

The following practices are required for the maintenance of shelter for poultry birds

• Proper cleaning and sanitation of the shelter.
• Maintenance of temperature and hygiene in the shelter.
• Proper ventilation.
• Prevention and control of diseases and pests.

Poultry Diseases and their Prevention :

Poultry fowl suffer from various diseases caused by virus, bacteria, fungi and parasites. They also suffer from nutritional deficiency diseases. These diseases can be prevented by

• Providing nutritional diet to poultry birds.
• Proper cleaning and sanitation of shelter.
• Proper and periodic vaccination of poultry birds.
• Spraying of disinfectants at regular intervals in the shelter.

Fish Production :

Fish is a cheap source of animal protein for our food. Production of fish includes both finned true fish as well as shellfish like prawns and molluscs.

Two ways of obtaining fish :

• Capture fishing It is a method of obtaining fish from natural resources.
• Culture fishery It is the method of obtaining fish from fish farming or pisciculture.

Both the methods can be used for fishing in marine and freshwater (i.e. river and ponds) ecosystems.

(i) Marine Fisheries :

Marine fishes are caught using many kinds of fishing nets from fishing boats.

• Examples of popular marine fishes : Pomfret, mackerel, tuna, sardines and Bombay duck.

India's marine fishery resources include 7500 km of coastline and deep seas beyond it.

Marine fishes of high economic value that are farmed in sea water are

• Finned fishes : Mullets, bhetki and pearl spots.
• Shell fishes : Prawns, mussels, oysters as well as seaweeds. Oysters are also cultivated for the pearls they produce.

The yield of fishes can be increased by locating large schools of fish in the open sea with the use of satellites and echosounders.

Know This : Mariculture : Mariculture, a commercial practice in India, is used to meet the demand for more marine fish as stocks deplete, including mullets, bhetki, eel, and milk fish, which are cultivated in coastal waters.

(ii) Inland Fisheries :

It includes fishery in freshwater and brackish water.

• Freshwater resources include canals, ponds, reservoirs and rivers.
• Brackish water resources are those where seawater and freshwater mix together, e.g. estuaries and lagoons. These are important fish reservoirs.

The yield of capture fishing is not high in such inland water bodies. Thus, most fish production from these resources is done through aquaculture.

Sometimes fish culture is done in combination with rice crops. In this, paddy crop gets ample of water and fishes get food.

Composite Fish Culture Systems (Polyculture) :

It includes a combination of 5 or 6 fish species cultivated in a single pond having different food habits. Due to this, they do not compete for food with each other. Thus, it helps in more intensive fish farming.

Advantages of composite fish culture :

• Both local and imported fish species are used.
• Due to different food habits all the food in pond is consumed by the fishes.
• The fish yield from pond is high as there is no competition for food. For example, Catla is surface feeder, rohu feeds in the middle-zone of the pond, mrigal and common carps are bottom feeders, grass carp feeds on weeds in the pond.

Disadvantage of composite fish culture :

• One of the major problem of fish farming is the lack of availability of good quality fish seed because many of the fishes breed only during monsoon. To overcome this problem, fishes are bred in ponds using hormonal stimulation. It ensures the supply of pure fish seed in desired quantities.

Bee-Keeping :

It is the method of rearing, care and management of honeybees for obtaining bee products like honey, beeswax (used in medicinal preprations), etc. For commercial honey production, apiaries or bee farms are established.

Advantages of beekeeping :

• Requires low investment.
• Provides varied products like honey (for eating or making other products), wax (used in medicinal and cosmetic preparations), bee venom, etc.
• Acts as an additional source of income for farmers.
• Helps in increasing crop yield by better pollination.

The local varieties of bees used for commercial honey production are

• Apis cerana indica : Indian bee,
• Apis dorsata : rock bee
• Apis florae : little bee.
• Apis mellifera : An Italian bee.

Apis mellifera has been brought in the country in order to increase the yield of honey. This is the main variety used for the commercial honey production.

Advantages of Italian Bees :

• They have high honey collection capacity.
• They sting somewhat less.
• They can stay in a given beehive for long periods and breed well.

Honey :

• It is a widely used product that is obtained from apiculture (beekeeping)
• Value of honey It depends on pasturage or flowers available to bees for nectar and pollen collection.
• Taste of honey It depends on adequate quantity of pasturage and kind of flowers available.