• The European Powers considered their culture more civilised, modern and superior. They forcefully started imposing their culture on the colonies. This also aroused the feeling of nationalism. The colonial powers exploit the people of their colonies so much that all sections of the people decide to throw off the foreign rulers.
• In India, the growing anger against the colonial government brought together various groups and classes into a common struggle for freedom.
• Moreover, the oppressed people realised that it was necessary to fight colonial rule to restore their glorious past and their freedom. Thus, what started as Anti-Colonial Movement, turned into Nationalist Movement. Everybody had his own interpretation of anti-colonialism, but the ultimate aim was to get rid of them.
• This unifying factor for India's diverse population led to the emergence of the idea of India as a nation. The ultimate goal was to restore India's glorious past and freedom.

The First World War created a new economic and political situation which led to increase in defence expenditure. This expenditure increase was financed by war loans and by increasing taxes. Moreover

• Price hike during the war years (1914-1918) led to extreme hardship for the commoners.
• During 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India, thereby resulting in acute food shortages. Villagers and farmers were forcefully recruited in the British army, this caused widespread anger.
• Incidents such as implementation of Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Martial law in Punjab, disintegration of the Ottoman empire, further aggravated the situation, resulting in the emergence of the National Movement.

Indians were outraged by the Rowlatt Act for the following reasons

• Rowlatt Act was introduced in 1919. This act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the opposition from Indian members.
• Under this Act, the police could arrest anybody and put in prison without trial for two years.
• The provisions of this Act outraged Indians and hurt their nationalist sentiments and dignity.

Gandhiji decided to withdraw Non-Cooperation Movement because the movement took a violent turn at Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh where the people set on fire a Police Station in which 22-23 policemen were burnt alive in 1922. Gandhiji wanted to stop violence at any cost.

• Satyagraha is a method of agitation and protest based on truth and non-violence. It was first introduced by Mahatma Gandhi in the National Movement. The method was passive resistance, consisting of defiance of laws, non-payment of taxes, boycott of government institutions, etc.
• First, Gandhiji applied Satyagraha in 1917, in Champaran district of Bihar to help the peasant against the unjust plantation owners. Then he organized Satyagraha in Kheda district of Gujarat in support of peasants in 1917 and also in Ahmedabad, in favour of cotton mill workers in 1918.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre :

• On 13th April, 1919, a large crowd gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, Punjab.
• Some people gathered there to protest against government's repressive measures, while some came to attend the annual Baisakhi fair. Many of them unaware of the martial law that was imposed.
• General Dyer blocked the exit points of the ground and without warning gave order to open fire on the crowd. Many people were killed and many wounded in this incident.

• Simon Commission arrived in India, in 1928. It was greeted with black flags and slogans like 'Simon Go Back'. Both Congress and Muslim League unitedly protested against it.
• This commission was boycotted by the Indian people as it did not include any Indian member in it. Also the Commission did not give any hope of 'Swaraj for the Indians'.

Key Differences :

• Cultural Tone: Bharat Mata is rooted in spiritual and maternal imagery, drawing from Hindu iconography. Germania is drawn from European mythological and classical traditions, emphasizing military power and unity.
• Gender Role Representation: Bharat Mata is more of a nurturing mother, while Germania is often a protective warrior or avenger.
• National Identity Expression: Bharat Mata emphasizes cultural and civilizational unity across India’s diverse society. Germania conveys a political and militaristic unity, especially among the fragmented German states.

Both Bharat Mata and Germania served as powerful national personifications to inspire unity and patriotism. While Germania emphasized strength and armed resistance, Bharat Mata focused more on sacred duty, devotion, and cultural heritage. These images played crucial roles in mobilizing mass support and emotionally binding people to the idea of the nation.

The Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement started in January 1921. Various social groups which joined the Non-Cooperation Movement were

• Middle Class People in Towns : In towns, middle class people who consisted of students, teachers and lawyers responded to the clarion call of Non-Cooperation and boycott. They saw the movement as a passport to freedom from the foreign rule. They boycotted foreign goods and clothes and liquor shops were picketed.
• Plantation Workers : They participated in the movement with the hope that they would be free to move out of the confined space in which they had beer enclosed. They hoped that Gandhi Raj was coming, and everyone would be given land in his own village.
• Peasants and Tribal People : In various places, peasants and tribals also participated in the movement. The movement was launched against the talukdars and landlords. For them 'Swaraj' meant that they would not be required to pay land dues i.e., land revenue and the land they were cultivating would be distributed among them. When the colonial government began forcing the tribal people to contribute 'begar' (free labour) for road building, they revolted.

Salt March was an effective symbol or tool of resistance against colonialism because all classes could identify with salt as it was an essential food item.

• Tax on salt and the monopoly over its manufacturing was a sign of the oppression of British rule.
• Gandhiji reached Dandi on 6th April, 1930 and violated Salt law by manufacturing salt from sea water.
• Breaking the Salt law was an apparent defiance of British authority and was a direct challenge to British rule in India.
• People were not only asked to refuse cooperation with the British, but to break the unjustified colonial laws.
• Thousands of people from different parts of the country broke the Salt law, manufactured it and demonstrated in front of government salt factories.
• With the spread of the movement, foreign cloth was boycotted, liquor shops were picketed, peasants refused to pay revenue, chaukidari taxes, village officials resigned, forest people violated forest laws by collecting wood and grazing their cattle in the forest.

In this way, Salt March inspired people from different segments of our society and became our effective tool of resistance against the colonial power.

• As a woman participating in the Civil Disobedience Movement, I felt empowered and empowered to serve the nation in any capacity.
• Inspired by Gandhiji's call for participation, I offered Satyagraha, picketed liquor and foreign cloth shops, and courted arrest.
• This experience highlighted the importance of women in actively helping men achieve independence from the British.
• It made me realize that women also play a crucial role in achieving our freedom and empowering the nation.

Political leaders differed sharply over the question of separate electorates because

(i) The Muslim leaders thought that their interest could only be protected in a Muslim state and in a Hindu majority state they would be at the mercy of the Hindus. They wanted reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to

population in the Muslim-dominated provinces, viz, Bengal and Punjab. However, this was dangerous for the unity of the nation.

(ii) Dr BR Ambedkar, the leader of the depressed classes, was in favour of separate electorates for his community but Gandhiji believed that separate electorate for Dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society and created divisions in the society. Later, Ambedkar accepted Gandhiji's position and signed 'Poona Pact'.

Gandhiji's saying about Satyagraha being active resistance means that

• It requires a lot of soul force activity.
• It involves very great sacrifices to be made, which can be done only by strong-willed persons.
• It requires resistance to oppression without using any force.
• It emphasises the power of truth and the need to search for it.
• If the cause is true, physical force is not necessary to fight the oppressor.
• The Satyagrahi can win the battle against the oppressor by appealing to his conscience, by persuading him to see the truth.

Student should do it by self.

• I would have responded positively to Gandhiji's call by refusing to pay Zamindar's illegal demands, requesting revenue reduction, and ensuring tenure security. In short, I would boycott the system of Zamindari, in a non-violent manner.
• The reasons for my above action are that, as a peasant, I will limit my requirement to my area of work. Swaraj would mean freedom from the atrocities perpetrated by the Zamindars.

Several participants in the Indian National Movement were captured and executed by the British colonial authorities for their revolutionary activities. Here are a few prominent examples:

In Indian National Movement: Revolutionaries Executed by the British

• Bhagat Singh (1907–1931) : Involved in the killing of British police officer John Saunders and bombing the Central Legislative Assembly. Became a symbol of youth resistance; martyred at the age of 23.
• Rajguru (Shivaram Hari Rajguru, 1908–1931) : Executed with Bhagat Singh. Assisted in the assassination of John Saunders.
• Sukhdev Thapar (1907–1931) : Executed with Bhagat Singh. Close associate and co-conspirator in revolutionary actions.
• Khudiram Bose (1889–1908) : Involved in the Muzaffarpur bombing aimed at British magistrate Kingsford.
• Ashfaqulla Khan (1900–1927) : Part of the Kakori train robbery aimed at funding revolutionary activities.
• Ram Prasad Bismil (1897–1927) : Leader of the Kakori conspiracy.

Comparable Case in Indo-China (Vietnam)

(Note : Question is based on old syllabus chapter 2.)

During the Vietnamese nationalist movement against French colonial rule (also part of Indo-China), similar revolutionary figures were executed by the colonial authorities.

Example:

• Phan Dinh Phung : While he was not executed (he died of illness while fighting), he was a symbol of resistance during the late 19th century.
• Nguyen Thai Học : Leader of the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. Led the Yen Bai mutiny against French colonial rule. Captured and guillotined along with 12 other members.

Seen as a martyr for Vietnamese independence, similar to Bhagat Singh in India.

Both regions produced young revolutionaries who defied colonial rule and became enduring symbols of national pride after being executed by their respective colonial oppressors.

(For Figs. 12 and 14 Refer Text Book.)

The depiction of Bharat Mata as a Hindu Goddess in both images may not appeal to all castes and communities, especially non-Hindus, and as India is a secular country with diverse religions, a secular symbol would be more suitable.

Various classes and different social groups of Indians participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement led by Gandhiji in 1930. All of them joined this movement on account of their own needs, aspirations and limited understanding as follows

• In the rural areas, rich farmers and peasant communities such as Patidars (Gujarat) and Jats in Uttar Pradesh were very hardly hit by the trade depression and they participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement and supported the boycott programmes.
• The poor peasants also demanded that their dues of rent should be remitted.
• The business classes participated in the movement to oppose the colonial policies that restricted business activities.
• Some prominent industrialists supported the movement financially and boycott the trading of foreign goods.
• The industrial working classes except the workers in Nagpur region stayed away from this movement as big industrialists came closer to the Congress. This was the first time that the large number of women participated in the Nationalist Movement.

No, I do not agree with Iqbal's idea of communalism. Because,

• He believed that it is a quest for a community to develop on its own lines.
• He believed that religion is the basis on which thinking and behaviour are based.
• He felt that religion gives persons a common culture and literature,
• He believed in the concept that Hindus and Muslims should exist as separate entities in India.

This line of thinking encouraged separatism and ultimately led to the partition of the country.

We understand communalism now-a-days as having a negative connotation i.e. it is understood as conflict between people of different religions, which also can lead to

violence between them. It has now become politics under the guise of religious conflict for extracting favours or favourable treatment by the government.