Introduction :

In 1848, French artist Frédéric Sorrieu created a series of four prints depicting his vision of a world composed of democratic and social republics.

The first print (fig.) depicts people from Europe and America, including men and women of all ages and social classes, marching in a long train and paying homage to the statue of Liberty.

Fig.1 — The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics

The Pact Between Nations, a print prepared by Frédéric Sorrieu, 1848 :

Sorrieu personified Liberty as a female figure, holding the torch of Enlightenment and the Charter of the Rights of Man. The image also features the shattered remains of absolutist institutions.

In Sorrieu's utopian vision, the peoples are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costumes. The United States and Switzerland lead the procession, while France, represented by the revolutionary tricolour, is followed by Germany's peoples.

The French Revolution and the Idea of Nation :

The first idea of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens.

The various measures and practices introduced by the French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people were as follows

• New ideas like la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) promoted the idea of a united community with equal rights under a Constitution.
• Adoption of A new French flag replacing the former royal.
• Establishment of a centralised administrative system with uniform law for all citizens.
• New hymns were composed and oaths were taken. Martyrs were remembered in the name of the nation.
• Internal custom duties and dues were abolished.
• Estates General was elected by the body of citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
• Regional dialects were discouraged. French language for speaking and writing was accepted as a common language of the country.
• Uniform system of weights and measures were adopted.
• As news of the French Revolution spread across Europe, educated middle-class citizens in many cities formed Jacobin clubs. Their campaigns opened the way for French armies to enter Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy during the 1790s. French armies carried the idea of nationalism throughout Europe.

Reactions of local citizens in the Napoleon conquered regions :

In the regions that Napoleon conquered, local citizens had mixed reactions to French rule.

• Initially, they welcomed French armies as liberators in Holland, Switzerland, and cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan, and Warsaw.
• However, anger arose when new administrative systems failed to guarantee political freedom.
• The negative effects of higher taxes, censorship, and compulsory military service seemed more significant than administrative changes.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe :

In mid-18^th century, there were no nation-states in Europe. Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons, whose rulers had their autonomous territories. They did not share a collective identity or a common culture.

The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary was a combination of many different regions and people. It included

• The Alpine regions (Tyrol, Austria and Sudetenland, Bohemia where the aristocracy spoke German.
• Italian speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
• Hungary in which half of the population spoke Magyar.
• Galicia, where the aristocracy spoke Polish.
• Ordinary people like Bohemians and Slovaks in the North, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats in the South, and Roumans in Transylvania.

These differences made it hard for them to feel united politically. The only thing connecting these various groups was their loyalty to the emperor.

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class :

• The aristocracy was a dominant class in Europe, dominated by aristocrats who owned estates and property in both rural and town houses. The people in this group shared a similar way of living and ignored regional differences. They spoke French for diplomatic and high-society interactions and were often connected by marriage. However, they constituted a small portion of the population, while the peasantry constituted the majority.
• Industrialization in Western and Central Europe led to the growth of towns and the emergence of commercial classes, including working class and middle class groups.
• After aristocratic privileges were removed, national unity gained popularity among educated and liberal middle classes.

What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for? :

• Liberal nationalism, originating from the Latin word "liber," was a central ideology in early 19th-century Europe.
• It emphasized individual freedom and equality before the law, promoting a government based on public agreement.
• It advocated for ending autocracy, clerical privileges, and a constitution with elected representatives.
• However, it did not guarantee universal suffrage (equal voting rights), as only property-owning men could vote and be elected.
• Women and non-propertied men organized opposition movements for equal political rights.
• In the economic sphere, liberalism aimed to free markets and eliminate state restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
• Tariffs, often based on weight or measurement, were seen as limitations to economic exchange and growth.
• In 1834, a Customs Union or Zollverein was formed, abolishing tariff barriers and reducing the number of currencies from over thirty to two.

A New Conservatism After, 1815 :

• After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, European governments adopted a new conservatism, preserving traditional institutions like the monarchy, church, and family.
• They believed that Napoleon's changes could modernize and strengthen these institutions, such as the monarchy.
• In 1815, representatives from Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria met in Vienna to create a settlement for Europe.
• The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich. They drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815.
• The Treaty of Vienna of 1815 aimed to reverse many of the changes made during the Napoleonic Wars, with the goal of establishing a modern army, a strong government, a strong economy, and the abolition of feudalism and serfdom.

Characteristics of New Conservative Regimes :

• They were autocratic. They didn't accept criticism and tried to suppress activities challenging their authority.
• Censorship laws were enforced to control liberal expressions in various forms like newspapers, books and songs.

The Revolutionaries :

• After 1815, liberal-nationalists feared suppression and formed secret groups to train and share ideas.
• They opposed monarchial forms established after the Vienna Congress and fought for liberty and freedom.
• Many believed nation-states were necessary for this struggle, as they believed it was necessary for their freedom.

The Age of Revolutions : 1830-1848

Liberalism and nationalism were associated with the revolution in many regions of Europe such as the Italian and German states, the provinces of Ottoman Empirea, Ireland and Poland. These revolutions were led by liberal-nationalists belonging to educated middle class.

These revolutions in different places were as follows

• The first upheaval or disruption took place in France in July, 1830. The Bourbon kings were overthrown by liberal revolutionaries, who installed Louis Philippe as the constitutional monarch.
• The July Revolution started an uprising in Brussels, which led to Belgium separating away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
• In the early 1800s, Greeks fought for independence from the Ottoman Empire. Many people supported the Greek cause and in 1832 Greece was officially recognised as an independent nation through the Treaty of Constantinople.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling :

• Culture played a crucial role in shaping the idea of a nation, with art, poetry, stories, and music expressing and shaping nationalist feelings.
• Romanticism, a cultural movement, aimed to develop a specific type of nationalist feeling by focusing on emotions, instincts, and mystical feelings.
• German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people.
• Folklore, such as folk songs, poetry, and dances, popularized the spirit of the nation. Focusing on local languages and gathering traditional stories allowed people who couldn't read to share modern nationalist ideas, especially in Poland.
• Poland had been divided by powerful countries like Russia, Prussia, and Austria in the late 1700s.
• Poland supported nationalist feelings through music and language, with Karol Kurpinski celebrating the national struggle through operas and transforming folk dances like Polonaise and Mazurka into symbols of nationalism.
• Language also played a significant role in developing national sentiments, as the Polish language was forced out of schools after Russian occupation.
• In 1831, a rebellion against Russian control was defeated, with Polish language being used by Polish clergies for religious instruction and as a weapon against Russian dominance.

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt :

The 1830s were the years of great economic hardship in Europe as

• The first half of the 19th century saw an enormous increase in population all over the Europe. Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
• Small producers in town faced tough competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from England due to their advanced industrialisation. This was especially in textile production,
• Peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations. The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread poverty in the country.
• The condition of the workers in town was extreme. In 1845, weavers of Silesia village led a revolt against contractors. It was because the contractors supplied raw material to weavers and gave them orders for finished textiles but reduced their payments.
• On 4th June, a large crowd of weavers revolted and demand from contractor for higher wages. However, they were treated badly and threatened by the contractor.

In 1848, population of Paris revolted due to food shortage and widespread unemployment. Barricades were erected and Louis Philippe was forced to flee.

As a result, a National Assembly proclaimed a republic and granted suffrage to adult males above 21. It also guaranteed them the right to work. National workshops were set-up to provide employment.

1848 : The Revolution of the Liberals :

• In 1848, revolution led by the educated middle class led to the resignation of monarch. A republic was declared, allowing all men to vote.
• In other parts of Europe like Germany, Italy, Poland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
• This demand was based on parliamentary principles like Constitution, freedom of press and freedom of association.
• In Germany, many political groups decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly.

Issue of Political Rights to Women :

• The issue of extending political rights to women was a dispute within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years.
• Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and had taken part in political meetings and demonstrations.
• Despite this, women were not allowed to vote during the Assembly election. When the Frankfurt Parliament met at the Church of St. Paul, women were admitted only as observers.

The Making of Germany and Italy :

Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation? :

Unification of Germany :

• After 1848, nationalist sentiments were promoted by conservatives to promote state power and political domination over Europe.
• In Germany, the middle class sought to unite the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected Parliament.
• However, this effort faced opposition from the monarchy, military, and powerful landowners in Prussia.
• Prussia took on the leadership of the movement, with Chief Minister Otto Von Bismarck aiming to achieve unification with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.

The major events that occurred at the time of unificaton of Germany :

• Three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.
• In January 1871, William I, the King of Prussia, was declared the German Emperor in a ceremony at Versailles.
• On 18th January, 1871, an Assembly comprising the princes of the German states, representatives of the army and important Prussian ministers including the Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck, declared the new German Empire headed by Kaiser William I of Prussia.

The nation building process in Germany highlighted the dominance of the Prussian government. The new state Germany had a strong emphasis on modernising the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany.

Italy Unified :

During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, out of which only one state, Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian Princely House.

The North was ruled by Austrian Habsburg, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the Southern regions were ruled by the Bourban king of Spain.

Major Events that Led to the Unification of Italy :

• In 1860, the army (regular troops and armed volunteers) under Garibaldi marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. They succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers.
• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was declared king of United Italy. The states of Tuscany, Modena, Parma and the Papal were joined with Sardinia.

The Strange Case of Britain :

The Growth of Great Britain :

• There was no British nation before the 18th century. The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnici1 like English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
• However, as the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence over the other nations of islands. In 1688, the English Parliament seized power from the monarchy.
• A new 'British' nation was established through the propagation of a dominant English culture.
• The symbol of the new Britain were the British flag (Union Jack), the National Anthem (God Save Our Noble King) and the English language. These were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

Incorporation of Scotland and Ireland :

• The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
• By this Act, Scotland was incorporated in England. Hence, the British Parliament was dominated by its English members.
• Ireland was a country divided into Catholics and Protestants. The English supported the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over Catholics.
• As a result, revolt was raised by Catholics under Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen, but it was suppressed in 1748.
• In 1801, Ireland was forcibly included the United Kingdom of Britain.

Visualising the Nation :

• In the 18th and 19th century, artists portrayed the nation as female figures. The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in real life.
• The female figure became an allegory of the nation. In France, the female allegory was Marianne and the characteristics of Marianne were the red cap, the tricolour and the cockade, which were drawn from liberty and republic. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.
• Germania became the allegory of the German nation.
• Germania was represented by a crown of Oak leaves, because German Oak stood for heroism.

Nationalism and Imperialism :

• By the last quarter of the 19th century, nationalism lost its idealistic liberal democratic sentiment. During this period, nationalist groups became increasingly intolerant of each other and were ready to start war.
• The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic differences. It comprised of modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro. Its inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.
• A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The Balkans became an area of intense conflict as different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence.
• During this time, many powerful European nations such as Russia, France, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary competed to gain control over the Balkans. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally led to the First World War.
• Nationalism aligned with imperialism led to Europe's disaster in 1914, as many colonized countries began to oppose imperial domination. This period saw the rise of nationalism and imperialism in the region.